Horton, S. V., Lovitt, T. C., & White, O. (1992). Teaching mathematics to adolescents classified as educable mentally handicapped: Using calculators to remove the computational onus . Remedial and Special Education , 13 (3), 36–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193259201300304

Students were taught to solve math problems through three different methods: (1) paper and pencil, (2) calculators, (3) calculators employing a rehearsal strategy using problems containing visual cues.

Seven Caucasian students, 5 girls and 2 boys, classified as Educable Mentally Handicapped (EMH) participated in this study. The participants were enrolled in a self-contained class in a junior high school. In addition to the special education students, 44 general education students were included in the study in order to obtain pre-experimental comparison levels of computational performance with paper and pencil and calculators.

Students completed subtraction problem sheets, consisting of approximately 20 four-column subtraction problems, after each of the four instructional phases were completed.

Students identified as having educable mental handicaps (EMH) performed significantly better when using calculators rather than paper-and-pencil during the assessment. Rehearsal and visual cues significantly influenced improved performance for only one student classified as EMH. All students demonstrated continued performance improvements over time when retested a month later. Without calculators, the students classified as EMH scored lower than their general education peers; however, with calculators the performances were fairly comparable. [See also Horton, S. (1984)]